10. The Kingdom of Aksum (Ethiopia)
Flourishing from the 1st to the 7th centuries CE, Aksum was a trading powerhouse that minted its own coins and connected Africa with the Mediterranean and India. Its monumental stelae and early adoption of Christianity made it a beacon of culture and faith in the Horn of Africa. Scholars regard Aksum as one of the great civilisations of late antiquity.
9. The Nabataean Civilisation (Arabia)
Masters of desert trade and water engineering, the Nabataeans carved the city of Petra into rose coloured cliffs and taxed caravans moving frankincense and spices. Roman annexation in 106 CE reshaped the region, but their rock-cut tombs and canals still amaze visitors today.
8. The Sogdians (Central Asia)
Based in the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara, the Sogdians acted as cultural brokers along the Silk Road. They spread ideas, art and goods between China, Persia and the Mediterranean, leaving murals and manuscripts that show a cosmopolitan worldview.
7. The Norte Chico Civilisation (Peru)
Also known as Caral Supe, this coastal society thrived around 3000 BCE with large platform mounds and sunken plazas. Evidence suggests organised labour, sophisticated textiles and musical instruments, yet little sign of warfare. It stands among the earliest complex societies in the Americas.
6. The Hittite Empire (Anatolia)
An Indo-European power that rivalled New Kingdom Egypt, the Hittites developed influential legal codes and were early adopters of ironworking. Their archives at Hattusa preserve treaties and myths that help historians piece together Late Bronze Age diplomacy.
5. The Kingdom of Kush (Nubia)
To Egypt’s south, Kushite rulers built pyramids at Meroë and even governed Egypt as its 25th Dynasty. Their art and religion blended Nile traditions with local identities, and their control of trade routes brought wealth in gold, ivory and iron.
4. The Indus Valley Civilisation (South Asia)
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro reveal city planning with grid streets, standardised bricks and advanced drainage. The script remains undeciphered, which keeps many aspects of daily life a mystery. Climate shifts and river changes may have contributed to its decline.
3. The Olmec Civilisation (Mesoamerica)
Often called the mother culture of later Maya and Aztec societies, the Olmec crafted colossal basalt heads and refined long-distance trade in jade and obsidian. Their iconography influenced Mesoamerican religion and kingship for centuries.
2. The Etruscans (Italy)
Before Rome dominated the peninsula, Etruscan city-states excelled in metalwork, engineering and urban design. Roman religion, triumphal rituals and even the alphabet show strong Etruscan roots. Their language is only partly understood, which adds to the intrigue.
1. The Göbekli Tepe Builders (Turkey)
At over 11,000 years old, Göbekli Tepe’s ringed enclosures and T-shaped pillars predate pottery and cities. Hunters and gatherers organised large building projects, which challenge assumptions about when complex ritual and social structures began.